Impact of internet in marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Impact of internet in marketing - Essay Example Internet marketing, which is called e-tailing in computer-speak, is the selling of retail goods online that radically transformed the existing market structures - mostly for the best (Cassiman & Sieber, 2002). When it was started in 1997 by such companies as Dell Computer, Amazon.com and Auto-by-Tel, many thought it could never replace the traditional mode of face-to-face marketing because of the socially enriching experience of personally touching and appraising the quality of goods you want to buy and haggling with the vendors. This prognostication was proven wrong by the 10 million purchases made online at the initial year, and by 2004, the value of online trade globally reached $3.14 trillion, up from $350.30 billion in 2000 (Andan, 2003). This paper looks into the factors that attracted more and more businesses to online marketing, focusing its attention on the impact of the Internet on the very concept of marketing and the benefits of this specialized type of marketing as compared to traditional brick-and-mortar selling. The study also seeks out the advantages and disadvantages of Internet marketing so that upstart companies planning to bring their marketing activity to the Net will know what to expect and what to avoid. Both new and well-established corporations and small and medium enterprises are turning to the Internet to create new markets and reorganize their existing markets. This marketing platform is ubiquitous and low-cost to make it a potent force for maximizing the growth of any company with some IT knowledge and capability (Kiang & Chi, 2001). All this began in 1990 when the US National Science Foundation approved the use of the Internet for non-academic use, primarily marketing and commerce. It took three years before the worldwide web phenomenon became possible and by 1993 some 5 million people were using the new technology for marketing applications. The number leaped to 62 million in 1997 and by 1998, there were 100 million users around the world. Internet traffic continued to double every 100 days, according to pioneering Internet provider Unmet Technologies, thus drawing the popular observation that the Internet achieved "one of the fastest adoption rates any technology has every experienced (Brynjolfsson & Smith, 2002)." The changes wrought by the Internet is believed even better than the communication revolution effected by the telephone, which established connection between only two or several nodes. The Internet allows the simultaneous exchange of information in digital form among an unlimited number of nodes. At the click of a mouse, any owner of a connected computer can access and create vast amounts of information, images and opinions. The Internet user can even access processes and procedures previously cordoned off in back offices and data processing centers of government agencies and corporations. Today, the popular applications of the Internet in business include online auctions, travel booking, shopping in cybermalls, home banking, online stock trading, insurance and mortgage services (Andan, 2003). It was just a matter of time before the Internet gained acceptance as a modern-day platform for marketing. At least three forces directed the world's attention to the rich possibilities of the

Creation and Innovation in Entrepreneurial Venture

Creation and Innovation in Entrepreneurial Venture Introduction In relation to the Inspiring Futures project, entrepreneurship is about creative or innovative thinking and taking appropriate action that can enhance such innovative thoughts. However, prior to taking such an action, there is a need for a plan to ensure that an entrepreneurial idea transforms, for instance, into a viable and successful project or business ventures (Watson, 2013). In this sense, an effective and efficient implementation of a project or business venture entails the consideration of a number of factors. Among such factors, are, for example, acquiring necessary skills needed for the project or business venture and developing an understanding of the key stakeholders in the project (Ives, 2005). Additional factors that may need consideration in the successful implementation of the Inspiring Futures Project include the need to work with a good management team (Cleland Gareis, 2006). To this end, this essay focuses on project management and teamwork and how learning from t hese two topics has been used in the Inspiring Futures Project that I did. Project and stakeholder management In any given project, there is a need for the project managers to establish a proper plan that can lead to the successful completion of the project. In this regard, some of the success factors that project managers need to embrace include: effective communication processes, emphasis the projects mission, develop schedules and plans, setting objectives, ensuring stakeholder satisfaction and ensuring they have support from the top management respectively (Davis, 2014). On the same note, in any given project, stakeholder management is critical for successful completion. In this sense, it is important for the project manager to focus on engaging the right people to ensure the project is not hampered as a result of conflicting interests between the management and key stakeholders of the project (Muller Turner, 2007). On another note, when undertaking a given project, it is important for the project manager to possess certain skills necessary to achieve success with the project at hand (Kerzner, 2004). Such skills may involve, for example, communication, leadership, team management, negotiation, personal organisation and risk management respectively (Mir Pinnington, 2014). Leadership, on the other hand, is a necessity to ensure project managers are better placed to not only lead other workers at the project site, but also manage them in an effective and efficient manner (Turner Muller, 2005). With regard to team management, it is important for project managers to focus their attention on promoting teamwork as a strategy to ensure operations at the project site are not hampered (David, 2005). As such, it is important for the project managers to develop a working environment where teamwork is emphasised rather than individualism that may derail the completion of various projects on time (Aaltonen Kujala, 2016). As observed by Aaltonen and Kujala ( 2016), traditional project management denotes a focus on project requirements that are identified in the initial stage of the project. Subsequently, these requirements are then divided into manageable tasks. At this point the project managers are expected to develop a detailed plan for each task as a strategy to ensure the project goals are achieved in an efficient manner and risks related to the project kept lower. However, this view of project transformation has contributed to project failures in different sectors. As such, Aaltonen and Kujala (2016) reiterate the need to shift to agile project management techniques where project requirements are expected to emerge and drive the project rather than using the project plan, which in most cases may lead to pre-misunderstood outcomes. To this end, value needs to be achieved by project end rather than a focus on defining them at the beginning of the project. Teamwork, managing people and the working environment In order for entrepreneurs to succeed in their business ventures, they need to work with an effective and efficient management team. In essence, some of the benefits associated with teamwork include enhancing creativity and learning. When people work together, they share a wide range of ideas that often contributes to the best alternative action. Further, teamwork also helps employees to improve and blend their talents in a complementary manner. Teamwork also contributes to workers trusting one another, which in turn, contributes to a collaborative process between the top management and subordinates respectively (Kerzner, 2013). Further, teamwork contributes to the development of conflict resolution skills, which are necessary to ensure the progress of a business venture or project not deterred as a result of conflicts. Through an emphasis on teamwork, employees often develop a sense of ownership because the top management recognises their contributions. Teamwork further contributes to healthy risk taking as it encourages members to think beyond in terms of exploring ideas and implementing them with the hope that they can contribute to positive results with the intended goals of the business or project at hand (Meredith Mantel, 2012). On another note, compared to starting a business as a sole entrepreneur, a start-up that involves partnership more than often is better placed to succeed in the marketplace. This is because; they are likely to share their skills and resources to survive in the marketplace. Conversely, a solo entrepreneur may face numerous challenges trying to survive in todays competitive and constantly changing marketplace. According to Ives (2005), a focus on teamwork theory can play a role in developing an efficient and effective team to achieve the intended goals of the project. In this regard, it is important for the project managers to be conversant with the stages of group development. On the other end of the spectrum, teamwork can encourage groupthink, which may lead to half-baked decisions due to greater emphasis on a collaborative process within the group. In this sense, while entrepreneurs shift their focus on teamwork, there is still a need to ensure that individual views are not overlook ed as a way to strengthen group cohesion (Park, 1990). With regard to managing people, there are various leadership styles that entrepreneurs can embrace to not only enhance employee involvement but also achieve success with their intended goals (Eskerod, Hueamann Savage, 2015). For instance, a leadership style considered to reinforce teamwork is transformational leadership. This leadership style denotes the leader working with his or her followers to achieve the intended goals of the business. The working environment, on the other hand, needs to be conducive in terms of encouraging employee involvement rather than demoralise employees, who may in turn, exhibit poor performance, and in extreme cases, leave for better opportunities elsewhere (Maak Pless, 2006). Using the learning in the Inspiring Futures Project I did The Inspiring Futures Project I did involved how to improve social media platforms for Clever Students Lets. Implementing a project is a challenging process, and understanding the skills necessary to achieve a successful project completion is important. As such, the learning from the topic of project and stakeholder management played a role in ensuring that needs assessment is conducted prior to deciding on the best alternative for improving the social media platforms for Clever Students Lets. In order to understand the presenting needs related to the use of social media platforms for Clever Students Lets we used questionnaires to obtain primary data from participants. Conversely, we obtained secondary data from related literature on how to improve social media platforms for a service such as Clever Students Lets. As a result, the needs assessment we conducted relied on both primary and secondary data that ensured we selected the most suitable alternative to improve the social media platforms for Clever Students Lets (Aaltonen Kujala, 2016). The learning on managing people, on the other hand, and with regard to the Futures Project assisted in the sense that we were better placed to learn about effective leadership and its importance in completing the successful completion of the project (Turner Muller, 2005). Factors we considered, and informed by the learning from the topic of managing people involved understanding our strengths and weaknesses to ensure the decisions we made regarding the project involved a collaborative process. Some of the skills we embraced included, for instance, accommodating the views of each member in terms of deciding on the most suitable course of action to improve social media platforms for Clever Students Lets (Project Management Institute, 2013). Further, through an understanding of the skills associated with the planning and implementation of a given project derived from the two topics, the group and I were better placed to consider all the success factors that would ensure the Clever Stud ents Lets become a success. Some of the success factors that we considered for the Inspiring Futures Project included: proper planning and teamwork, effective management of the presenting risks, and successful project completion (Matta Ashkenas, 2003). With regard to the best improvement for the social media platforms used by Clever Students Lets, an emphasis on teamwork as informed from the learning was necessary to brainstorm the most suitable action to take. Such a focus contributed to the collaborative decision to settle on snapshot account as ideal for Clever Students Lets. The process involved weighing a number of options by relying of the contribution of each member in the group on the benefits and risks of the available course of action that would improve the social media platforms for Clever Student Lets. Conversely, in ensuring that the project succeeded, the group also focused attention on embracing effective leadership with participants involved in the project. For instance, to encourage the active participation from group members we emphasised a hands on approach where we worked closely with each other to ensure the project becomes a success in terms of improving the social media platforms used by Clever Students Lets (Northouse, 2004). Further, in order to create a positive work environment, the group deliberated on trusting one another, set achievable goals for the project, carried out regular meetings and shared information and knowledge respectively (Whetten Cameron, 2011). Conclusion The success of an entrepreneurial venture entails focus on creative or innovation thoughts to ensure the initiatives or plans that entrepreneurs introduce in the marketplace become a success. In essence, implementing such creative thoughts is largely dependent on a number of factors that have an influence on the business or project progress. For example, effective and efficient management of a project depends largely on the skills and experience of the project manager. In this sense, the skills and experience of the project manager often influences the success factors they embrace for various projects. References Aaltonen, K., Kujala, J., 2016. Towards an improved understanding of project stakeholder landscapes. Journal of Project Management, 34(8), p. 1537-1552. Cleland, D.,ÂÂ   Gareis, R. ,2006. Global project management handbook (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Print. David, F., 2005. Strategic management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Publishing. Davis, K., 2014. Different stakeholder groups and their perceptions of project success. International Journal of Project Management, 32, p.189-201. Eskerod, P., Huemann, M., Savage, G., 2015.Project stakeholder management: Past and Present. Project Management Journal, 46(6), p. 6-14. Ives, M., 2005. Identifying the contextual elements of project management within organizations and their impact on project success. Project Management Journal, 36(1), p. 37-50. Kerzner, H., 2004. Advanced project management: Best practices on implementation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Kerzner, H.,2013. Project Management: A Systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling (11th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Maak, T. Pless, N.M., 2006. Responsible leadership: A relational approach. In Maak, T. Pless, N.M. (Eds.), Responsible leadership. New York, NY: Routledge. Matta, N. F., Ashkenas, R. N.,2003. Why good projects fail anyway. Harvard Business Review, 81(9), p.109-114. Meredith, J. R., Mantel, S. J., 2012. Project management: A managerial approach (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Mir, F.A., Pinnington, A.H., 2014. Exploring the value of project management: Linking Project Management Performance and Project Success, International Journal of Project Management, 32, p. 202-217. Muller, R., Turner, R., 2007.The influence of project managers on project success criteria and project success by type of project. European Management Journal, 25 (4), p. 298-309. Muller, R., Turner, R., 2010.Leadership competency profiles of successful project managers. International Journal Project Management, 28, p. 437-448. Northouse, P. G. ,2004. Leadership: Theory and practice (3rd edn.). London, UK: Sage Publications. Park, W., 1990.A review of research on groupthink. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 3, p. 229-245. Project Management Institute, 2013. A Guide to the project management body of knowledge(5th ed.). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Turner, J.R., Muller, R., 2005.The project managers leadership style as a success factor on projects: A review.Project Management Journal, 36 (2), p.49-61. Watson, T.J., 2013.Entrepreneurship in action: Bringing together the individual, organizational and institutional dimensions of entrepreneurial action. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 25(5), p. 404-422. Whetten, D. A. Cameron, K. S., 2011. Developing management skills. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Pearson.

Seeking Atonement in Crime and Punishment Essay -- Crime Punishment Es

Seeking Atonement in Crime and Punishment Raskolnikov, the protagonist of Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment was a complicated man who committed a crime. Raskolnikov murdered a woman who was a plague to mankind, especially the poor of Russia. In the chilling process however, he also murdered her younger sister, Lisaveta. To be purified, he drives himself through much agony. Not until the closing of the novel did he realize he must confess to be atoned and to find love. Consciously, Raskolnikov was averse to admitting his misdeed. He rationalized himself by asserting that the ends justify the means. Alyona's malignant nature, extremified by her outward appearance, and effect on the base community depending on and surrounding her. Her sole use for the profits were to upkeep continuous prayers in her horrible name. Although Raskolnikov excused himself this way, the true and conscious reason was only to test his power and ideologies about criminal psychology and the "superman". In his theory, to be above the law one cannot be discovered because to be punished would be to...

Roles of Transportation

CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN SOCIETY NPTEL May 7, 2007 Chapter 3 Role of transportation in society 3. 1 Overview Transportation is a non separable part of any society. It exhibits a very close relation to the style of life, the range and location of activities and the goods and services which will be available for consumption. Advances in transportation has made possible changes in the way of living and the way in which societies are organized and therefore have a great in uence in the development of civilizations.This chapter conveys an understanding of the importance of transportation in the modern society by presenting selected characteristics of existing transportation systems, their use and relationships to other human activities. Transportation is responsible for the development of civilizations from very old times by meeting travel requirement of people and transport requirement of goods. Such movement has changed the way people live and travel. In developed and develo ping nations, a large fraction of people travel daily for work,shopping and social reasons.But transport also consumes a lot of resources like time,fuel, materials and land. 3. 2 Economic role of transportation Economics involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. People depend upon the natural resources to satisfy the needs of life but due to non uniform surface of earth and due to di erence in local resources, there is a lot of di erence in standard of living in di erent societies. So there is an immense requirement of transport of resources from one particular society to other.These resources can range from material things to knowledge and skills like movement of doctors and technicians to the places where there is need of them. 3. 2. 1 The place, time, quality and utility of goods An example is given to evaluate the relationship between place, time and cost of a particular commodity. If a commodity is produced at point A and wanted by people of anoth er community at any point B distant x from A, then the price of the commodity is dependent on the distance between two centers and the system of transportation between two points. With improved system the commodity will be made less costly at B. . 2. 2 Changes in location of activities The reduction of cost of transport does not have same e ect on all locations. Let at any point B the commodity is to be consumed. This product is supplied by two stations A and K which are at two di erent distances Introduction to Transportation Engineering 3. 1 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN SOCIETY NPTEL May 7, 2007 from B. Let at present the commodity is supplied by A since it is at a lesser distance but after wards due to improvement in road network between B and K,the point K becomes the supply point of product. . 2. 3 Conclusions †¢ Transport extends the range of sources of supply of goods to be consumed in an area, making it possible for user to get resources at cheap price and high quality. †¢ The use of more e cient systems of supply results in an increase in the total amount of goods available for consumption. †¢ Since the supply of goods is no longer dependent on the type of mode, items can be supplied by some alternative resources if usual source cannot supply what is needed. 3. 3 Social role of transportationTransportation has always played an important role in in uencing the formation of urban societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies, especially urban centers. 3. 3. 1 Formation of settlements From the beginning of civilization, the man is living in settlements which existed near banks of major river junctions, a port, or an intersection of trade routes. Cities like New York, Mumbai and Moscow are good examples. . 3. 2 Size and pattern of settlements The initial settlements were relatively small developments but with due course of time, they grew in population and developed into big cities and major trade centers. The size of settlements is not only limited by the size of the area by which the settlement can obtain food and other necessities, but also by considerations of personal travels especially the journey to and from work. The increased speed of transport and reduction in the cost of transport have resulted in variety of spatial patterns. . 3. 3 Growth of urban centers When the cities grow beyond normal walking distance, then transportation technology plays a role in the formation of the city. For example, many cities in the plains developed as a circular city with radial routes, where as the cities beside a river developed linearly. The development of automobiles, and other factors like increase in personal income, and construction of paved road network, the settlements were transformed into urban centers of intense travel activity. 3. 4 Political role of transportationThe world is divided into numerous political units which are formed for mutual protection, economic advantages and development of common culture. Transportation plays an important role in the functioning of such political Introduction to Transportation Engineering 3. 2 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN SOCIETY NPTEL May 7, 2007 units. 3. 4. 1 Administration of an area The government of an area must be able to send/get information to/about its people. It may include laws to be followed, security and other needful information needed to generate awareness.An e cient administration of a country largely depends on how e ectively government could communicate these information to all the country. However, with the advent of communications, its importance is slightly reduced. 3. 4. 2 Political choices in transport These choices may be classified as communication, military movement, travel o f persons and movement of freight. The primary function of transportation is the transfer of messages and information. It is also needed for rapid movement of troops in case of emergency and finally movement of persons and goods.The political decision of construction and maintenance of roads has resulted in the development of transportation system. 3. 5 Environmental role of transportation The negative e ects of transportation is more dominating than its useful aspects as far as transportation is concerned. There are numerous categories into which the environmental e ects have been categorized. They are explained in the following sections. 3. 5. 1 Safety Growth of transportation has a very unfortunate impact on the society in terms of accidents. Worldwide death and injuries from road accidents have reached epidemic proportions. killed and about 15 million injured on the road accidents annually. Increased variation in the speeds and vehicle density resulted in a high exposure to acci dents. Accidents result in loss of life and permanent disability, injury, and damage to property. Accidents also causes numerous non-quantifiable impacts like loss of time, grief to the near ones of the victim, and inconve- nience to the public. The loss of life and damage from natural disasters, industrial accidents, or epidemic often receive significant attention from both government and public. This is because their occurrence is concentrated but sparse.On the other hand, accidents from transport sector are widespread and occurs with high frequency. For instance, a study has predicted that death and disabilities resulting from road accidents in comparison with other diseases will rise from ninth to third rank between 1990 and 2020. Road accidents as cause to death and disability could rank below heart disease and clinical depression, and ahead of stroke and all infectious diseases. Significant reduction to accident rate is achieved in the developing countries by improved road des igned maintenance, improved vehicle design, driver education, and law enforcements.However in the developing nations, the rapid growth of personalized vehicles and poor infrastructure, road design, and law enforcement has resulted in growing accident rate. 3. 5. 2 Air Pollution All transport modes consume energy and the most common source of energy is from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, petrol, diesel, etc. The relation between air pollution and respiratory disease have been demonstrated by various studies and the detrimental e ects on the planet earth is widely recognized recently. The combustion of Introduction to Transportation Engineering 3. Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN SOCIETY NPTEL May 7, 2007 the fuels releases several contaminants into the atmosphere, including carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and other particulate matter. Hydrocarbons are the result of incomplete combustion of fuels. Particulate matters are minute solid or liquid particles that are suspended in the atmosphere. They include aerosols, smoke, and dust particles. These air pollutants once emitted into the atmosphere , undergo mixing and disperse into the surroundings. 3. 5. Noise pollution Sound is acoustical energy released into atmosphere by vibrating or moving bodies where as noise is unwanted sound produced. Transportation is a major contributor of noise pollution, especially in urban areas. Noise is generated during both construction and operation. During construction, operation of large equipments causes considerable noise to the neighborhood. During the operation, noise is generated by the engine and exhaust systems of vehicle, aerodynamic friction, and the interaction between the vehicle and the support system (road- tire, rail-wheel).Extended exposure to excessive sound has been shown to produce physical and psychological damage. Further, because of its annoyance and disturbance, noise adds to mental stress and f atigue. 3. 5. 4 Energy consumption The spectacular growth in industrial and economic growth during the past century have been closely related to an abundant supply of inexpensive energy from fossil fuels. Transportation sector is unbelieved to consume more than half of the petroleum products. The compact of the shortage of fuel was experienced during major wars when strict rationing was imposed in many countries.The impact of this had cascading e ects on many factors of society, especially in the price escalation of essential commodities. However, this has few positive impacts; a shift to public transport system, a search for energy e cient engines, and alternate fuels. During the time of fuel shortage, people shifted to cheaper public transport system. Policy makers and planners, thereafter gave much emphasis to the public transit which consume less energy per person. The second impact was in the development of fuel-e cient engines and devices and operational and maintenance practi ces.A fast depleting fossil fuel has accelerated the search for energy e cient and environment friendly alternate energy source. The research is active in the development of bio-fuels, hydrogen fuels and solar energy. 3. 5. 5 Other impacts Transportation directly or indirectly a ects many other areas of society and few of then are listed below: Almost all cities uses 20-30 percent of its land in transport facilities. Increased travel requirement also require additional land for transport facilities. A good transportation system takes considerable amount of land from the society.Aesthetics of a region is also a ected by transportation. Road networks in quite country side is visual intrusion. Similarly, the transportation facilities like y-overs are again visual intrusion in urban context. The social life and social pattern of a community is severely a ected after the introduction of some trans- portation facilities. Construction of new transportation facilities often require substant ial relocation of residents and employment opportunities. Introduction to Transportation Engineering 3. 4 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN SOCIETY NPTEL May 7, 2007 3. Summary The roles of transportation in society can be classified according to economic, social, political and environmental roles. The social role of transport has caused people to live in permanent settlements and has given chances of sustainable developments. Regarding political role, large areas can now be very easily governed with the help of good transportation system. The environmental e ects are usually viewed negatively. 3. 7 Problems 1. Safety criteria of transportation is viewed under (a) Political role of transportation (b) Environmental role of transportation c) Social role of transportation (d) None of these 2. Which of the following is not a negative impact of transportation? (a) Safety (b) Aesthetics (c) Mobility (d) Pollution 3. 8 Solutions 1. Safety criteria of tr ansportation is viewed under (a) Political role of transportation (b) Environmental role of transportationv (c) Social role of transportation (d) None of these 2. Which of the following is not a negative impact of transportation? (a) Safety (b) Aesthetics (c) Mobilityv (d) Pollution Introduction to Transportation Engineering 3. 5 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao

Anthropology Exam Review

The scientific study of humans, Including their origins, behavior and physical, cultural and social development. Cultural Anthropology: Explore how culture has shaped people In the past and present day. Physical Anthropology: Explore where human species came from, how our bodies developed In the present form, and what makes us unique. Psychology: The scientific study of the human mind, mental states, and human behavior.Sociology: The scientific study of human social behavior, including individuals, groups, and societies. Inquiry Model: A scientific model used to organize thoughts, observations and relevant scientific information leading us to new questions and ideas. Identify the problem or question Develop a hypothesis Gather data Analyze the data Draw conclusion Archaeology: Excavate physical remains of past cultures to understand and reconstruct them.Some study cultures with no written record (prehistory) or study sites that have a recorded history to supplement their understandin g of the culture. Linguistic Anthropology: Study human languages and how language affects and expresses culture. Ethnology: The study of the origins and cultures of deferent races and peoples. They are concerned with marriage customs, kinship patterns, political and economic systems, religion, art, music and technology. Most often study a culture through participant observation. Humans vs..Primates Similarities Differences The bond between mother and infant is important for survival Humans are the only primates adapted to Bipedal Have a very long infant dependency period (Time until an individual can reproduce) Humans have the longest infant dependency period of any other mammal Have eminence hierarchies and aggression among the males for access to food and females Humans are the only primates with a symbolic, spoken language and the physical ability of speech Groom or clean one another Humans are the only primates who live In groups and mate In pairs Communicate through facial expr essions, touch, visualization, and body language Humans develop grasping feet, forward facing eyes and relatively large brains Pharmacology: Study the anatomy and behaviors of living primates. Paleontology: The study of human ancestors based on evidence from distant evolutionary past. Human Variation: Genetic differences between people and populations to understand the differences between people. They try to find out how and why human beings are different and try to understand these differences from an evolutionary perspective. Forensic Anthropology: Help legal agencies to identify human remains after mass disasters, wars, homicides, suicides, or accidental deaths. They are usually paleontologists or archaeologists who have spent years studying human bones and fossils.Culture: All of the learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, and ideals of a particular society or population. Culture is Learned: a We learn most thoughts, behaviors and values we continue to learn for our life Culture is Shared: a If a group or society thinks or acts in particular ways, those become part of culture b If a small group shares cultural value, they may belong to a SUBCULTURE: Share characteristics of the overall culture, but also have important distinctive ideas and behaviors Culture Defines Nature: a Culture can limit, fulfill, expand or in other ways influence our biological needs and inherited tendencies Culture Shapes how we perceive and Understand the World: Ex.Intuit have numerous ways to describe snow because it was important to their survival Culture has Patterns: a Cultures aren't random collections of belief and behavior; if one aspect changes, so do others b Underlying cultures are certain core values and world views that are usually taken for granted by members of the culture c We are often unaware of the values we hold because they seem self-evident Unstructured Interview: No questions are pre-established and the researcher has little control over a respondent's answers. Pros: Allow researcher to test out his or her initial ideas and can lead to a greater understanding of the topic Cons: May be deception between interviewer and interviewee Semi-structured Interview: Go with an outline of types of information wanted but not a strict list of questions. Pros: Good if you have one chance to meet the person Cons: It can be easy to stray away from the topic you need info on Structured Interview: Use a set list of questions that don't change. Should be used when researcher is very clear on the topic and other information is easily available.Pros: Can be used efficiently by non-experts Does not require relationship Can produce consistent data Cons: Cannot adapt to change and are closed questions May obtain limited answers Participant Observation: Observes a group and participates as a member. Kinship Systems Bilinear: A system of family descent where blood links and rights of inheritance through both male and female ancestors are of equal importance. Matri lineal: Societies in which descent is traced through mothers rather than through fathers. Patrimonial: A system in which family descent is reckoned through the blood links of males. Types of Marriage Monogamy: A relationship where an individual has one partner. ProsOnly legal type of marriage in Canada Loyalty to each other Prevents Sexually Transmitted Infections Cons Higher divorce rate Change partners over a lifetime High divorce and remarriage rate Polygamy: A form of marriage that involves multiple partners. Pros Symbol of wealth and acquiring wealth Man is cared for by multiple people Enjoy company of copies Emotionally and financially difficult Unequal love Confusion of family Bridgewater (A cultural system where the groom must pay a father in order to marry his daughter Polyandry: A form of marriage with one wife and multiple husbands pros Lots of space Sexual rights and economic responsibilities Can respond to different environmental and social constraints Cons Increased wo rkload Must look after all husbands Love Marriage: A person chooses who they want to marry.Choose your life partner Personal desires are important 50% percent divorce rate in USA, and 33% in Canada Families may not be close since one family may not like the other Arranged Marriage: Someone else chooses the spouse for the person. Pros Only 5-7% divorce rate Close family ties, extended family households and parental support in maintaining the marriage Cons No real feelings of love for other person Couple's personal desires aren't as important Religion: Cultural beliefs of the supernatural that people use to cope with problems of existence. Religious questions help people to understand ultimate questions such as: Why are we here? What is death? Why does evil happen to some and not others?Religion satisfies psychological needs common to all people in the faces of uncertainty Religion provides community and affirms a person's place in society, making its believers feel part of a communit y and giving them confidence Multiculturalism: An ideology that states that all cultures are of equal value and would be promoted equally within the same nation. Acculturation: The meeting of two or more cultural groups and the resulting cultural changes to each group. Assimilation: Individuals want to have daily interaction with other cultural groups and leave behind their own cultural heritage. Schools of Psychology Behaviorism: Behavioral conditioning in the forms of classical and operant conditioning.Psychoanalysis: ID: Expresses sexual and aggressive instincts; follows the pleasure principle EGO: Mediates between desires of the old and the demands of the Superego; follows the laity principle SUPEREGO: Represents conscience and the rules of society; the moral centre of the mind Humanism: Hierarchy of Needs – Describes the theory of motivation, explaining that basic needs must be fulfilled before higher-order needs become important. Safety Needs Belongingness and love Need s Esteem Needs Self-Actualization Cognitive: The mental process in the brain associated with thinking, knowing and remembering. Classical Conditioning: Created by Ivan Pavlov A kind of learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CSS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) EX.Dog drooling test He knew he could get an unconditioned response (drooling) when he presented the unconditioned stimulus (food) To test his theory, Pavlov took a neutral stimulus (bell) and began to ring it at the same time that the dog received its food After a while, the dog began to associate the sound of the bell with receiving food, a conditioned stimulus, since it produced a conditioned response Operant Conditioning: Created by B. F. Skinner A type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its antecedents and consequences EX. Rat and pigeon experiment Skinner developed a box that had a bar on one wall When pressed, a food pellet fell into the cage Inside the box, a rat was r ewarded with food each time it pressed the bar Within a short time, the rat was furiously peddling away hoarding its pellets in the cage Erik Erikson believed that humans continue to develop over their lifetime rather than just in their childhood.He also believed that individual growth depends on society, not Just personal experiences. Anxiety Disorder: Affects a person's behavior, thoughts, emotions, and physical health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – Worrying, nervousness, tension Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (COD) – Obsessions and compulsions Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PUTS) – After a person is exposed a traumatic event Depression: Mood disorder involving a pervasive, unhappy, or irritable mood. It is much more severe than Just unhappiness, and may interfere with a person's life if not treated. Bi-Polar Disorder: A mental illness characterized by periods of elevated mood and periods of depression.Behavioral Change Model Pre-contemplation: Not thin king about or intending to change a problem Contemplation: Aware of a desire to change a particular behavior Preparation: The action is intended in the near future, typically measured as within the next thirty days Action: Marks the beginning of the actual change occurring Maintenance: Maintaining this new behavior Attribution Theory: We link the behavior of others to their disposition or to an external situation. As a result, your interpretation of a person can be different than a friend's view. We are more likely to attribute a person's behavior to their internal disposition rather than a situation.Fundamental Attribution Theory: The tendency to overestimate the impact of arsenal disposition and underestimate the impact of social influences when analyzing the behaviors of others. Social thinking affects behavior by affecting sensation and perception. (Sensation – Activates sense receptors) (Perception – Select, organize and interpret data). Attitude affects behavior Attitudes are infectious and can affect the people that are near the person, which in turn can influence their behavior. Motivation directs behavior towards specific goals. Mental health affects behavior by creating irregular social norms. Intrinsic Motivation: Desire to perform a task for its own sake.Extrinsic Motivation: Desire to perform a task due to external factors, such as reward, threat or punishment. Attitude and Behavior Consistency Theory: Assume that individuals need consistency between attitude and behavior. Change attitude by creating inconsistency in knowledge and behavior. Learning Theories: Study the influence of stimuli on other stimuli to create an emotional response. Change attitude by using classical and operant conditioning techniques. Social Judgment Theories: Study how prior attitudes change the perspectives of persuasive messages that influence their persuasion. Changed attitude by taking fair and unbiased messages. Functional Theories: Questions proposed o f attitudes.Change attitude by creating inconsistency between an attitude and a function. Structural Functionalism: Takes the view that various segments of society serve a purpose for society as a whole; they believe that social problems are temporary and institutions will improve over time. Sociologist – Emilie Druthers Conflict Theory: Expresses the view that power, not function, holds a society together. Society is seen as groups of people acting together in competition and in this, may erupt to bring about change. Sociologist – Karl Marx Symbolic Interactions: Focuses on how individuals learn about their culture – how they subjectively interpret, then act upon their social world.Sociologist – Max Weber Feminist Sociology: Focuses on women and gender equality in society. They emphasize a better understanding of the social roles of men and women in different cultures. Sociologist – Dorothy Smith Primary and Secondary Agents of Colonization Family : The family is responsible for meeting the individual's basic needs and providing beliefs needed to survive in this world. It is within the family structure that you are first introduced to right and wrong, proper and improper, and appropriate and inappropriate. The family shapes behavior throughout life, and is the first agent a person is introduced to. A family is any combination of two or more people who are bound together over time.Types of Families Nuclear Family: A family that consists of spouses and their dependent children Extended: A family system in which several generations live together in one household Lone-parent: A family that consists of one family living with one or more pendent children Blended Family: A family in which divorced partners with children from a previous union marry Same-Sex Family: A family that consists of two individuals of the same gender, with to without kids School/Work: Lasts 12-20 years of an individual's life. School socializes children in kn owledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to help them function in society. Work typically lasts until the age of 65 or until the person can retire. School and work teach attitudes, and habits, such as organization, responsibility, promptness, cooperation, and respect for authority.Peer Groups: At age 2-3, children come into contact with their peer groups which brings along with it new personality types, behaviors and attitudes. Adolescent peer groups tend to influence colonization to a greater degree due to the rapid change in society. Helps to understand relationships and situations like friendliness, compromising, dealing with disappointment, and coping with rejection. Culture and Religion: Each culture has a different perception of gender roles. Society generally determines appropriate roles for a man or woman. Religion is an aspect of ultra and also plays a socializing role in a person's life. It is usually introduced first Media: Media influences what we say, how we say it, wha t we think etc.Positive Influences: Informing us of new policies/laws, promoting healthy eating and exercise, encouraging family values Negative Influences: Focusing on negative aspects, promotes negative behaviors Social Identity: The way you define yourself to the world and to yourself. Life Stages Not everyone passes through them, nor do they have to occur in the same order Stereotype: An exaggerated view or Judgment made about a group or class of people. Discrimination: The act of treating groups of individuals unfairly based on their race, gender, or other common characteristics. Prejudice: An individual judgment, about or active hostility towards another social group.Formation of Discrimination Learned Theory Not innate – Learned through colonization Children often carry prejudicial views until adolescence Can learn through media Competition Theory The key reason for discrimination is economic competition Whenever an economic crisis occurs, people assume immigrants are responsible Creates competition between unemployed and immigrants Frustration-Aggression Theory Shortcomings an individual experiences financially provides reason to resent a group that appear to have greater wealth Frustration can be displaced and turned into culture Can lead to escape goats Ignorance Theory Lack of personal and social experience can cause people to make incorrect assumptions about someone If we refuse to learn, we may see actions as strange or odd Norms: Expectations about how people should behave. Sanctions: Rules within a group that encourage or discourage certain kinds or behavior.Rioting: Takes place because of civil disorder/social grievance. Panic: An irrational response by individuals or a group that is caused by a dangerous event. Abnormal Colonization Child Abuse Physical Abuse: Assault or inflicting personal harm inappropriately Neglect: The failure to provide physical or emotional necessities of life. Emotional Abuse: Repeatedly criticizing or subjectin g a child to an unhappy or disturbing environment. Feral: Children deserted at a young age and were raised by animals. Ex. Joana Malay (Discovered at the age of 8 in her backyard, raised by dogs) Isolate: Children raised in near isolation within human households.